Analysis of Dynamic Characteristics in Ore Comminution:Revisited

The high reliability of rural and urban settlements on groundwater in India and the individualistic nature of groundwater usage make groundwater management and governance extremely challenging. Groundwater resources development in India, even today, has progressively become synonymous with increasing the accessibility of the resource through more and more sources and meeting the growing demand through the infrastructure of distribution. Management of groundwater becomes selflimiting when the focus is on exploration for new sources, without understanding resource behaviour. On the other hand, experience has shown that bringing aquifers to the centre stage of groundwater management is important. The concept of aquifers changes the way in which communities begin to perceive groundwater and becomes the first step in developing socioecological resilience to groundwater-related vulnerability. Building resilience to groundwater-related vulnerability further includes developing a governance mechanism that strikes a balance between supply management and demand regulation through an understanding of the resource, i.e., the aquifer.Aquifer systems in India are highly diverse and complex because of the variation in their inherent properties such as storativity, transmissivity and groundwater quality. Aquifer vulnerability is a consequence of not only how the rampant exploitation and contamination of groundwater occur, but also how different aquifers react to these fluxes. Moreover, irrespective of the scales of groundwater accumulation and movement, micro-level analysis of aquifers becomes imperative because of the atomistic nature of groundwater access and use. A systematic hydrogeology-based approach that requires delineating aquifers, understanding the dynamics of groundwater and mapping the demand and dependence of community on the resource holds the key to decentralized groundwater governance in India. Such an approach can be undertaken through participatory monitoring, decision support and action.The inherently heterogeneous nature of aquifers and communities in western and central India demand a strategic application of mapping, characterizing and managing local aquifers through a participatory groundwater management protocol. This nuanced approach beginning with aquifers as both a resource and a system, ensures equitable, efficient and hence, the sustainable management and governance of aquifers in this region.

India is a water stressed country. Regionwise scenario is different but in general surface water resources are not sufficient to fulfil the need of the country. Available sites for water storage are limited and are located in reach regions which makes it difficult to rationally distribute the available surplus water resources to the deprived regions. This compels the extraction of groundwater in the deprived regions. Even in the command areas of the dams the tail enders do not get water and hence they have to depend on groundwater. Cropping pattern has been continuously changing due to market variations and hence the regions which are not expected to grow water-intensive crops have started growing them by meeting the water demand from precious groundwater. Objective of agriculture has been changed from food production to profit-making. Urbanization and Industrialization have furthered the dependence on groundwater. The erratic rainfall sometime is the cause of depending on groundwater. In all, the reasons for dependence on groundwater are many and the overall dependence on groundwater has been at present between 50 % to 90 % in different parts of India. For last so many years that the dependence on groundwater has been on increase which has posed a serious threat of quantity and quality of water almost in the entire country and the present model of economy, agriculture and development as a whole has become a subject of reconsideration on the ground of sustainability and environmental change. The root cause of this situation is the unsustainable ways of resource management we have adopted. Gujarat is one of the most suffering states in water scarcity because of all the aforesaid factors. The objective of the paper is to discuss the issues and the probable solutions such that that the future course could be corrective and is approached early to save the future of the state and the entire country.

The Chhattisgarh state covers a total geographical area of about 135192 Sq. Km with subtropical climate, characterized by extreme summer and moderate winter having average rainfall of about 1300 mm. Physiographically, the area is characterized by three distinct landforms namely Bastar plateau in the South, the plain of Mahanadi river and its tributaries in the central part and the hills of Chhotanagpur plateau in the northern region. The major river basins in the state are Brahmani, Godavari, Ganga, Mahanadi and Narmada . The total catchment of these river basins is about 13559 kilometers. The Mahanadi Basin is the largest basin covering an area of about 76150 square kilometers out of 141589 square kilometers, nearly 4.3 percent of total geographical area of the country. Chhattisgarh has 2 percent population and 3.2 percent of total surface water resources of the country. The utilizable surface potential in the state if properly harnessed can irrigate about 4.3 million hectares area against the existing potential of 1.38 million hectare. Due to various anthropogenic activities, urbanization, industrialization etc, the quality and quantity of water have been adversely affected. The rivers Hasdeo, Indravati, Kharun, Apra etc. are polluted due to industrialization and urbanization in various parts of the Chhattisgarh. To check the pollution, proper management of solid/liquid waste of various industries is needed. Beside these, use of biofertilizers instead of chemical fertilizers, pesticides etc should be promoted. Effective water management strategies combined with watershed treatments like soil conservation, afforestation, desilting of rivers, rainwater harvesting etc are needed to maintain the health of the river basins of Chhattisgarh. The Jal Shakti Abhiyan started by the Government of India is a highly welcome move in this direction.

The increasing pace of ground water extraction in agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors during the past four decades has led to problems of continuously declining ground water levels and deterioration of groundwater quality in many areas of Madhya Pradesh. This has threatened the sustainability of many dug wells and tube wells. Depending heavily on agriculture-based economy, the State requires assured irrigation for sustainable agricultural productivity. Groundwater is the major source of irrigation, and also the sole source of drinking water. But the development of ground water is constrained due to heterogeneity of the formations, non-uniformity in degree and nature of the weathered and fractured zones of the aquifers. It is observed that there is heavy surface run-off in many areas during the monsoon period often resulting in floods, yet these very same areas face crisis of water during the summer. This flood? drought syndrome is basically resultant of improper management of available water resources. As ground water is an annually replenishable but limited resource, augmentation of the recharge to ground water is the only option left for ensuring its sustainability.The present study is aimed at identifying the areas in Madhya Pradesh suitable for artificial recharge to arrest the depletion of ground water resources on the one hand and create additional resources to cater to the domestic, agricultural and industrial needs in the State.

The Ground Water Resources play an important role in agro-economy of the Chhattisgarh State being heavily dependent on rain?fed agriculture. The Ground water resources are controlled by normal monsoon rainfall of 1201 mm with four aquifer systems, viz a) Sandstone aquifers, b) Limestone aquifers, c) Crystalline aquifers comprising granites, gneisses schists, ultrabasics and basalts of Archean, Proterozoic and Cenozoic age respectively forming discontinuous, unconfined and semi-confined aquifers, and d). Alluvial aquifers comprising alluvium, clays, silts, laterites etc. forming thin and extensive unconfined aquifers in several isolated patches and near major river courses. These are unconsolidated formations of Quaternary age. During pre-monsoon period in the 70% area of the state groundwater level remains under 5 to 10m, 21% under 10 ? 20 m and less than 1% under more than 20 mbgl. In the Post-monsoon period, 71% area shows the groundwater level in the range of 2 to 5 m, 24% area, 5 to 10m and 2% more than 10 m bgl. In general, 23% wells show rise in the range of 0-2m, 35 % 2-4 m and 42%, > 4 m in response to rainfall. Ground water quality is bicarbonate type and suitable for all purposes. Isolated patches of Arsenic, Sulphate, Fluoride and NO3 contamination have also been reported. Ground water meets 84.5 % and 14.5 % of total irrigation and drinking water requirements respectively. The annual ground water recharge has been estimated as 11,579 MCM. The existing ground water extraction for all uses is 4691MCM. Out of 146 blocks, 41 blocks have Stage of Ground Water Extraction < 30 %, 46 blocks, between 30 to 50%, 35 blocks within 50 and 70 % and 24 blocks have > 70%. The groundwater utilization over the years has increased drastically from 5.11 % in 1990 to 44.37% in the year 2017.The immediate attention is needed on (a) Creation of additional Irrigation potential, (b) Supply of contaminant free water through alternate source, (c) Promotion of rainwater harvesting and sartificial recharge with community participation,. (d) Regulation of overuse of ground water and (e) Sensitizing Farmers through incentivizing water efficient irrigation techniques.